Dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants () is a Western metaphor with a contemporary interpretation meaning "One who develops future intellectual pursuits by understanding and building on the research and works created by notable thinkers of the past". Its most familiar expression is found in the letters of Isaac Newton: However, the metaphor was first recorded in the twelfth century and attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Attribution and meaning The attribution to Bernard is due to John of Salisbury. In 1159, John wrote in his Metalogicon: Bernard of Chartres used to say that we...

A monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force (sometimes referred to as the state's monopoly on violence) is the conception of the state expounded by sociologist Max Weber in his essay Politics as a Vocation (1919). According to Weber, the state is that entity which "upholds the claim to the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force in the enforcement of its order." Weber's conception of the state as holding a monopoly on force has figured prominently in philosophy of law and political philosophy in the twentieth century. Weber defines the state as a community successfully...